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China Has Great Physical Diversity Essay - 2017 Words

Geographical Location: China has great physical diversity. The east and south of the country consists of fertile lowlands and foothills, and is the location of most of China s agricultural output and human population. The west and north of the country is dominated by sunken basins (such as the Gobi and the Taklamakan), rolling plateaus, and towering massifs. It contains part of the highest tableland on earth, the Tibetan Plateau, and has much lower agricultural potential and population. Traditionally, the Chinese population centered on the Chinese central plain and oriented itself toward its own enormous inland market, developing as an imperial power whose center lay in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River on the northern plains. More recently, the 18,000 km (11,000 mi) coastline has been used extensively for export-oriented trade, causing the coastal provinces to become the leading economic center. Climate: China Owing to tremendous differences in latitude, longitude, and altitude, the climate of China is extremely diverse, ranging from tropical in the far south to subarctic in the far north and alpine in the higher elevations of the Tibetan Plateau. Monsoon winds, caused by differences in the heat-absorbing capacity of the continent and the ocean, dominate the climate. During the summer, the East Asian Monsoon carries warm and moist air from the south and delivers the vast majority of the annual precipitation in much of the country. Conversely, the SiberianShow MoreRelatedThe Ethical And Management Issues1593 Words   |  7 Pagesrevealed that 7-Eleven has been using exploitative and illegal work practices to reduce its labour costs. The documentary, by Adele Ferguson and Klaus Toft, revealed that the majority of employees at 7-Eleven stores were being paid less than half the legal minimum wage. In the past decade there has been a steady rise of ‘non-employees’ ( casuals, outworker, contractors, etc.) working for organisations, with an estimated  ¼ of Australian employees considered to be casual workers. In China and India, new andRead MoreCritically Evaluate Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs in Relation to Employee Motivation in Contemporary Chinese Business953 Words   |  4 PagesAs China has a fast developing economy with an increasing work force, it is necessary to improve employees’ motivation in order to maximize the productivity. According to the research from Brockmann (2009), the current challenge China facing is that the happiness of people is falling rapidly although the economy is growing fast. Thus, under this situation, it is urgent to figure out employees’ incentive and know what they need is the primary work to do to encourage them work harder. Maslow has a clearRead MoreThe Himalayas As A Barrier For The World898 Words   |  4 Pagesthousand years, separating civilized development in China from the rest of the world. (China kept much to herself until about two hundred years ago. Then the British, using gunpowder invented by the Chinese, forced the door to China wide open to the West, starting the most humiliating chapter in Chinese history). Developments in China and the West progressed at a similar pace, despite their engaging in little intellectual communications. Great thinkers emerged in both parts of the world about 2500Read MoreThe Himalayas As A Barrier For The World909 Words   |  4 Pagesseparating civilized development in China from the rest of the world. (China kept much to herself until about two hundred years ago. Then the British, using gunpowder invented by the Chinese, forced the door to China wide open to the West, starting the most humiliating chapter in Chinese history and the interactions with the rest of the world). Developments in China and the West progressed at a similar pace, despite their engaging in little intellectual communications. Great thinkers eme rged in both partsRead MoreIntelegenc639 Words   |  3 Pagesabnormal behavior among different cultures. Which has an influence on how abnormalities are diagnosed and treated in the field of psychology. For example, in China an abnormality called the neurasthenia or shenjing shuairuo, which is responsible for over half of their population’s psychiatric issues. The symptoms for Shenjing Shuairuo are difficulty concentrating and sleeping, mental or physical exhaustion, and physical pains. Along with the mental and physical aspects, there are many neurological symptomsRead MoreEsl Teacher Interview Paper1130 Words   |  5 PagesCounty Schools (Grant, NE), so I knew her methods and strategies were tried and true. She has several different hats in our school system with English Language Learner (ELL) being just one part. She was asked to work with/for me in this program with our high school ELL students while I concentrated on Elementary and Middle School. She is in charge o f the district’s Speech department which has also had great success. Finally, she is the school’s Spanish teacher, and a very good one. I have had theRead MoreThe And Its Influence On East Asia Essay1538 Words   |  7 Pages1. In 1949 Mao Zedong and his Communist Party defeated Chiang Kai-shek and his National Party for control over China. While Mao controlled China until his death in 1976, Kai-shek and his followers fled where and established a new government? a) Mongolia b) Pakistan c) Japan d) Taiwan 2. The religion with the largest influence in East Asia is? a) Buddhism b) Shintoism c) Christianity d) None of the above 3. Religions play a significant role in transferring cultural values and practices from oneRead MoreComparison on the Polybius from Punic Wars and Ssu-ma Chi’en995 Words   |  4 Pagesthe third century B.C., there were two independent and strong powers existing separately at the southeast of China in Asia and at the core area of Mediterranean in Europe, the Han dynasty and Rome. They have both reached the high point of the contemporary civilizations. Also, they formed their empires by defeating their own hostile forces. There are significant differences between the two great empires in their process of birth, growth and perfection, ruling ideologies and institutions and so on. BeforeRead MoreAdolf Hitler and The Holocaust Essay729 Words   |  3 Pagesand people with medical handicaps. This geonocide, led by Adolf Hitler, who was the chancellor and future dictator of Germany, resulted in the death of six million Jews and thousands of other innocents. The Holocaust is arguably the worst thing that has happened in our history. In our modern world we still have racist and religious problems accross the world particularly in the Middle East and Africa. By studying the Holocaust we can learn many things and gain a perspective on our lives. Adolf HitlerRead MoreYin Yang And Chinese Culture1282 Words   |  6 Pagespercent of healing depends on curative means and seventy percent on nursing care† (Wong Pang, 2000). In the past, the Chinese felt that taking care of the sick was strictly within the family. During the first recruitment of nursing as a profession in China, the institutional setting was a foreign subject. In 1907, it was felt that the nursing profession was misunderstood because people thought of it as servant’s work. It needed to be known that caring for the sick was more than a collection of tasks

Skin care product advertising analysis free essay sample

Companies used to invest millions of dollars in mass-media advertising to reach mass market. Nowadays companies recognize that they can’t appeal to all buyers in the market. Thus, the advertisement creators should think about who the target audience is and how to present and promote their product to them. The Target Audience Profile Gender segmentation has long been used in cosmetics. And so does SKII, from our understanding about SKII, it is mainly focus on ladies’ market. They are middle-aged, comparatively mature. By this age group of consumer, they have been working for awhile and supposed to be well-off for their income. For educational level, we can say SKII would like to attract the group which has been educated or even given high level of education as SKII used to state many technical and scientific terms in their advertisement. However, SKII does not make clear segment on occupation. Psychographic segmentation divides buyers into different segments based on social class, lifestyle, or personality characteristics. We will write a custom essay sample on Skin care product advertising analysis or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page People in the same demographic group can have very different psychographic characteristics. (Kotler P. and Armstrong G. (2010) Principles of marketing (14th ed. ), Pearson Education, Inc. , New Jersey, Chapter 7) Target market of SKII, the middle-aged ladies, is supposed to be affluent consumers. Consumers at this level of income, they don’t work for living, they work for better quality of life. Also, since they are well educated, they would like to seek for greater value from their purchases. They have intention to find out more information about product they are going to buy and what the benefit it is. Segments based on Psychographics emerge from patterns of responses Many companies target affluent consumers with luxury goods and convenience services. because of the rapidly changing market, marketing communications become the hottest topic in area of marketing. to present and promote their products or services to consumer market The Advertising Appeals The advertising appeals refers to the approach used to attract the attention of consumers and The Advertising executional framework(s) The level(s) of effect that the advertising is trying to achieve The recent troubled economy has provided challenges for marketers targeting all income groups. Consumers at all income levels—including affluent consumers—are cutting back on their spending and seeking greater value from their purchases. In many cases, luxury marketers targeting high-income consumers have been hardest hit. Even consumers who can still afford to buy luxuries appear to be pushing the pause button. â€Å"It’s conspicuous nonconsumption,† says one economist. â€Å"The wealthy still have the wealth, [but] it’s the image you project in a bad economy of driving a nice car when your friends or colleagues may be losing their businesses. †8 Piet Levy, â€Å"How to Reach the New Consumer,† Marketing News, February 28, 2010, pp. 16–20.

Romulus My Father Pursuit of Happyness Belonging Essay Essay Example

Romulus My Father Pursuit of Happyness Belonging Essay Paper ‘Everything has its own place and function. That applies to people, although many dont seem to realize it, stuck as they are in the wrong job, the wrong marriage, or the wrong house. When you know and respect your Inner Nature, you know where you belong. You also know where you dont belong. ’ Benjamin Hoff Discuss this statement, focusing on how composers of texts represent the concept of belonging. In your answer, refer to your prescribed text (‘Romulus My Father’) and ONE related text of your choosing. You should write no more than 1000 words. Sense of belonging coming from father, in father son relationship. This can be seen in both, Raimond Gaita’s elegiac memoir, ‘Romulus, My Father’ and Gabriele Muccino’s 2006 film, ‘the pursuit of happyness’. Both texts demonstrate the relationship between a farther and his son and the extreme amounts of love and pain that they are willing to go through for the child to make sure that they belong. Both fathers when growing up had no real father figures. Without their fathers a grow with them a be their idol, they lacked a sense of belonging that made them feel disjointed from the rest of society. We will write a custom essay sample on Romulus My Father Pursuit of Happyness Belonging Essay specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Romulus My Father Pursuit of Happyness Belonging Essay specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Romulus My Father Pursuit of Happyness Belonging Essay specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer As a result, when they have their own sons they go the extra mile to provide and care for their son in every way possible. The sons in both texts have a strong sense of belonging to their fathers and trust them in everything. ‘The pursuit of happyness’ subway/bathroom scene demonstrates this love and sense of belonging between father and child. The scene starts with a shot from above the heads of the protagonist, Chris Gardner, and his son, and looks down the subway as the last train of the night leaves and they are left alone in the subway. This metaphorically states how Chris feels, the last train has left without me and my son, every opportunity has passed. The scene then skips to Chris and Christopher sitting on a bench in the railway, with a distance between them. Christopher than gives his father an opportunity to make this experience easier for him, telling Christopher that the machines that he always carries around and is trying to sell, are time machines. Chris leads his son into the bathroom, while he is in the fantasy where they stay the night. Chris is shielding Christopher from the hard times that they are going through demonstrating the love that he has for his son but also the trust and sense of belonging he has in his dad. This is an emotive scene that is made to make the responder feel sympathy. In ‘Romulus my father’, a similar scenario plays out. Romulus’ father died early in Romulus’ life. Romulus lived in poverty and constantly moved between his grandparents and mothers house, but never belonged to either. He left at 13 to find work, but was always on the move, never really belonging anywhere. They moved to Australia where Romulus worked some hours away from Christine his wife and their son, Raimond. Christine neglected Raimond and was unfaithful to Romulus. Romulus believed it to be better if Raimond was to come to the camp where they were working. Romulus and Hora, Romulus’ closest friend, split their shifts so one of them could always care for young Raimond. Raimond is unaware of the sacrifices that his father and Hora gave up, at that age, in their only opportunity of rest in the day to provide Raimond with care and to give him a place to belong. Romulus didn’t have a true sense of belonging to anyone or thing except for Raimond. And for him he would go to the ends of the earth to provide and care for him. Raimonds has had the opportunity to belong and relate to others through what his father has done for him. â€Å"On many occasions in my life I have had the need to say, and thankfully have been able to say: I know what a good workman is; I know what an honest man is; I know what friendship is; I know because I remember these things in the person of my father† The repetition of ‘I know’ expresses how highly he holds up his father and how no one will be able to tell him otherwise.. The tone of the quote, is proud. Roof top scene in pursuit of happyness, where they are play basketball and Chris tells Christopher that he won’t make it in basketball, but realized that this crushed his dream, so then says â€Å"don’t ever let somebody tell you that you can’t do something, not even me†

Cute and Funny Baby Quotes for Every Occasion

Cute and Funny Baby Quotes for Every Occasion Like it or not, babies have a hold on your life like nothing else. They can send you into a tizzy with their incessant bawling, or they can tug at your heartstrings with their soft cooing. A baby can make you forget your worries, or add to them they so desire. However, you cant help falling in love with your baby, notwithstanding the smelly diapers. Here are some baby quotes to bring all those beautiful feelings flooding back. Funny Baby Quotes Henry RobinEvery baby needs a lap.Barbara Lazear AscherThe hot, moist smell of babies fresh from naps.Ruth Bell GrahamAs a mother, my job is to take care of what is possible and trust God with the impossible.Susan SarandonChildren reinvent your world for you.Charles DickensIt is a pleasant thing to reflect upon, and furnishes a complete answer to those who contend for the gradual degeneration of the human species, that every baby born into the world is a finer one than the last.Queen VictoriaAn ugly baby is a very nasty object, and the prettiest is frightful when undressed.Hal BoyleDoes Grandpa love to baby-sit his grandchildren? Are you kidding? By day, he is too busy taking hormone shots at the doctors or chip shots on the golf course. At night, he and Grandma are too busy doing the cha-cha.Mark TwainAdam and Eve had many advantages, but the principal one was that they escaped teething.Ed HoweFamilies with babies and families without babies are sorry for each other.John WilmotBefor e I got married I had six theories about bringing up children; now I have six children and no theories. Martin H. FischerGods interest in the human race is nowhere better evinced than in obstetrics.Barbara Kingsolver, Animal DreamsIt kills you to see them grow up. But I guess it would kill you quicker if they didnt.P. J. ORourkeGetting down on all fours and imitating a rhinoceros stops babies from crying. (Put an empty cigarette pack on your nose for a horn and make loud snort noises.) I dont know why parents dont do this more often. Usually it makes the kid laugh. Sometimes it sends him into shock. Either way it quiets him down. If youre a parent, acting like a rhino has another advantage. Keep it up until the kid is a teenager and he definitely wont have his friends hanging around your house all the time.H. Jackson Brown, Jr.Always kiss your children goodnight- even if theyre already asleep.Loretta LynnI didnt know how babies were made until I was pregnant with my fourth child.

How to Get Your CDL in West Virginia and Wisconsin

How to Get Your CDL in West Virginia and Wisconsin This article is useful for anyone who wants to get a CDL in West Virginia or Wisconsin. If you want to learn about earning a CDL at other states, we have put together a comprehensive guide on how to get a commercial driver’s license in every state of the country. West VirginiaYou need a CDL if you are going to drive:Any vehicle combination with a gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) of 26,001+ pounds, as long as the GVWR of the towed vehicle(s) is over 10,000 pounds. (Class A)A single vehicle with a GVRW of 26,001+ pounds; or  this vehicle towing another that is less than 10,000 pounds. (Class B)A vehicle with a weight rating of less than 26,001 pounds,  or such a vehicle towing another that is less than 10,000 pounds:  Vehicles that are designed for 16 passengers or more, including the driver, and  Vehicles used to transport hazardous materials.  (Class C)In order to obtain a CDL:You must be at least 18 years old and have 2 years of driving experience.You must  meet specific physical qualification standards and carry a medical certificate to show evidence of such qualification.If you are unable to become medically certified, you may be eligible for a medical waiver.The ExamsAll applicants must take either a written or oral knowledge test and pass  and answer at least 80% of the questions correctly.  You must test for the desired endorsements you have listed on the test card at the time you test for general knowledge, but you may get a test card for other endorsements at a later date if you wish to add them.If you fail the knowledge exam, you may not retest for 7 days. You may try to pass the exam three times on the original fees.After you pass the written exams, you will receive a commercial driver’s instruction permit. Only after you have your learner’s permit can you then take your road (skills) tests.After you pass your road tests, you can then receive your CDL.WisconsinIf you are going to drive any of the following vehicl es, you must obtain a CDL:Vehicles that weigh 26,000+ pounds, determined by the highest of the following:manufacturer’s gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR)manufacturer’s gross combination weight rating (GCWR) when the towed unit has a GVWR, registered weight, or gross weight of  10,000+ poundsactual weightregistered weightA vehicle carrying hazardous materials that require placarding under federal lawA vehicle designed or used to carry 16+ people, including the driverThe ExamsFirst, you must take and pass the appropriate knowledge test(s) for the vehicle you plan to drive.CDL knowledge tests are free, and take take at least 1 to 1.5 hours to complete. You must answer  80%+ questions correctly to pass.  You must present a valid Class D license at the time of testing.After you pass the knowledge exam, you can obtain your  Commercial Driver Learner permit (CLP).  Your CLP will be valid for 180 days. You can use a  CLP to practice driving with a qualified instru ctor or CDL driver  who has  a valid license at or above the level of your permit.You must hold a CLP  for 14 days prior to taking your road test(s).After you schedule and pass the pre-trip, backing test and skills test(s) with an approved third party tester, you can receive your CDL.

The descriptions still do not have enough information about the Essay

The descriptions still do not have enough information about the pictures. Please describe the pictures by starting at the left side of the picutre an - Essay Example The color used on the walls of the room is dull; this illustrates the unhappy environment inside the room. The woman is starring down outside the window; this illustrates that the room is upstairs, and the woman is observing an event or person(s). The event may be a sad one, according to facial expression. The person being observed may be a loved one who has just left the house (Friel 34). The second image shows a joyful and exciting event. It can be safely assumed that the picture represents a nuclear family on holiday. The family has a father, mother and three children. The children comprise one boy and two girls; this illustrated by their mode of dressing. The holiday destination is a beach because of blue waves illustrating the sea, the brown color showing the sand, and the background showing a mountain or hill range. The destination seems secure and private. This is because other people are not indicated in the picture. Luxurious hotels usually offer private beach tourism package. The nuclear family illustrated in the picture is not dressed for the holiday occasion. The man is in formal clothing, and the woman and daughters in dresses. Beach events require beachwear and swimming costumes. The image also illustrates love in the family. The man and the woman are looking and smiling at each other; likewise the son and the daughter are also looking at each other. The looks and the smiles illustrate love between family members (Friel

Comparative on Rock & Roll vs Rap Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Comparative on Rock & Roll vs Rap - Essay Example Rap culture involved not only low-class adolescents, but a lot of teenagers from middle-class families Both trends had been popular among young people, but constantly rejected by their parents as "bad" taste music. Rock & Roll and rap are considered as a cultural phenomenon and social change agents bringing novelty and a new vision of cultural norms. Both of them created social movements changing the attitudes of all involved: fans, musicians, managers, record companies executives, critics and magazine editors included. Rock & Roll and rap affected all aspects of culture in a positive and negative way. How people dress, what music they listen to, and what they choose for entertainment. The difference is that rap fans were more aggressive towards others. This was caused by social and cultural context rap emerged. The policy of aggressiveness was important because rap was one of many other styles and had to compete with hip-hop, rock, etc. It encouraged lust, sex, suicide, rebellion against authority, etc.

The Role of Myanmar Poems in Environmental Conservation Essay Example for Free

The Role of Myanmar Poems in Environmental Conservation Essay I would first like to express my thanks to the organizers of the Irrawaddy Literature Festival for this opportunity to discuss my â€Å"view on the significant role of Myanmar traditional Literature and culture in environmental conservation and sustainable development†. The topic I have chosen is on how Myanmar traditional poems can contribute towards environmental conservation and sustainable development from the aesthetic perspective. Like all organism, human beings rely on the natural environment for survival and well-being. But, unlike other living beings human needs not only physical nutrients, but mental supplement such as aesthetic feeling plays a vital role for his survival. Appreciation of beauty is one of the distinctive element that distinguishes humans from other creatures, that is, we like to live in beautiful places full of blooming flowers, green trees, singing birds as mental nutrients while we need fresh air and clean water with full of minerals as our physical nutrients. The natural environment provide our aesthetic needs through its amazing beauty such as ranges of purple mountain, snowy peak, green forests and prairies, the far-reaching spaces of blue oceans and colourful seashells, flowing yellowish rivers, the twittering sounds of birds and beasts with their mates, colourful flowers in bloom, and so forth. In my view the beauty of nature has always stimulated awareness that we have to preserve our environment to preserve this beauty. Today this beauty is rapidly vanishing; mega cities have replaced many beautiful landscapes and this has left human beings empty-hearted. It may be one of the causes in the rise of crime and violence in the inner cities of megapolices. The phenomena of natural world have historically been the subject and object of aesthetics. When we use the term ‘natural’ it has been conceptualized as the beautiful, pastoral, sublime, and picturesque. These aesthetic categories have historically functioned to frame and construct the natural world for us against a human, technologically determined environment. Environmental Aesthetics leads into questions and forms an analysis of our aesthetic relationship Dr. Le Le Wynn, Professor Head, Department of Philosophy, University of Yangon Irrawaddy Literary Festival (Myanmar) 3-2-2013 2 and judgments of the natural world as a methodology for setting up a better relationship that will promote environmental respect; not just preservation. 1 In his A Sand County Almanac, the founder of ecological science Aldo Leopold stated that â€Å"A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community† and â€Å"It is wrong when it tends otherwise. † 2 It means that integrity, stability, and beauty are necessary for preserving the natural environment. Of these, integrity and beauty are especially human concerns because nonhuman beings that live in the biotic community are not concerned with ethical or aesthetical value. Besides, it seems to suggest that both ethical and aesthetical considerations are crucial for the environmental conservation. Immanuel Kant, in his Critique of Judgment, stated that beautiful items in nature such as flowers, birds, and seashells provide a source of disinterested pleasure because their significant form alone can lead us to pleasurable imagination and understanding. â€Å"Beauty is a symbol of Morality,† and â€Å"The enjoyment of nature is the mark of a good soul† are key sayings of Kant. For him, the shared enjoyment of a sunset or a beach shows there is harmony between us all, and the world. In this respect, judgments of pure beauty, being selfless, initiate one into the moral point of view. 3 For that reason, it is clear that the role of aesthetic appreciation of Nature is crucial for awakening the human’s conscience with regard to ethical responsibility to the natural environment. In this sense, environmental aesthetics stresses its interest in the potentialities of artistic representations which can stimulate aesthetic appreciation which will lead to realization of the ethical obligations of human being towards nature. In fact, it is an undeniable fact that the power of aesthetic stimulation of the perceptual faculties of humans is more effective than the power of ethical guidelines to their conceptual awareness of them. In Myanmar culture, like other Eastern traditions, it is usually considered that human beings and natural environment coexist peacefully side by side in the world. This idea is reflected in the writings of Myanmar Poets and Authors. http://unnatural. ucsc. edu/environmental_aesthetics/index. htm Aldo Leopold (1981). ‘A Sand County Almanac’, The Land Ethic. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 237-265. 3 Barry Hartley Slater. ‘Aesthetics’, The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.  http://www.iep.utm.edu/

Elvis Presley Essay -- essays research papers

ELVIS PRESLEY   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Well a hard headed woman† Elvis Presley sang into the mike as he wildly strummed his guitar. Elvis Aaron Presley was born on January 8th,,1935 in Tupelo, Mississippi. His parents, Vernon and Gladys were poor farmers who had strong religious backgrounds. They raised Elvis in Tupelo where he learned how to sing and developed his guitar playing skills. Elvis did not have many friends growing up as a kid. His best friend was his guitar, which he picked up at age 11. When Elvis turned 13, his parents moved him to Memphis, Tennessee, where he attended Humes High School until 1953. Music was not Elvis’s first job. During his teens he worked as an usher and a truck driver. Elvis was driving down the road in his truck one day when he saw a sign that said RECORD MUSIC-FOUR SONGS FOR TWO DOLLARS. Elvis decided that he should see where he could take this opportunity. He went into the studio and recorded two songs for his mother. Elvis enjoyed recording and singing and began to send his tapes to managers. One manager, Colonel Tom Parker, enjoyed the sound of Elvis’s voice and decided to take on the young singer. Elvis kept recording and recording and sending and sending until finally he recorded two hits, â€Å"That’s All Right Mama† and â€Å"Blue Moon of Kentucky.† A sensation was born. In 1956 Elvis recorded â€Å"Heartbreak Hotel†, his first number one hit. The hits began to come in the dozens. â€Å"Hound d og†, â€Å"Don’t Be C...

Beauty in “The Bluest Eye” Essay

The Bluest Eye is a brilliantly written novel revealing the fictional trauma of an eleven-year-old black girl named Pecola Breedlove. This story takes place in the town of Lorain, Ohio during the 1940’s. It is told from the perspective of a young girl named Claudia MacTeer. She and her sister, Frieda, become witness to the terrible plights Pecola is unintentionally put through. Pecola chooses to hide from her disabling life behind her clouded dream of possessing the ever so cherished â€Å"bluest of eyes†. The Breedlove’s constant bickering and ever growing poverty contributes to the emotional downfall of this little girl. Pecola’s misery is obtained through the touch of her father’s hand and the voice of her community’s struggle with racial separation, anger, and ignorance. Her innocence is harshly ripped from her grasp as her father rapes her limp existence. The community’s anger with it’s own insecurities is taken out on this poor, ugly, black, non-ideal, young girl. She shields herself from this sorrow behind her obsessive plea for blue eyes. But her eyes do not replace the pain of carrying her fleeing father’s baby. Nor do they protect her from the shady eyes of her neighbours. Though this book discuses negative and disturbing situations, it teaches a very positive lesson. The theme of The Bluest Eye is that of depending on outside influences to become aware of one’s own beauty and to fabricate one’s own self image can be extremely damaging. Topic Tracking: Beauty Beauty 1: Claudia is constantly faced with white ideals of beauty. For Christmas one year, she receives a blue-eyed, blonde-haired, pink-skinned doll. Rather than adore the doll, she destroys and dismembers it as a result of her anger. Claudia feels she can never measure up to the beauty of white children, the beauty that all the world reveres. Beauty 2: The Breedloves are poor and ugly. At least that is how they think the world views them. Their beliefs that they are ugly come from white American media always portraying whites as representations of what is beautiful. Because of this, they do not strive for more, for they think that they do not deserve to have more. Beauty 3: Pecola wishes that she had blue eyes. She thinks that if her eyes were blue, and therefore beautiful according to white American standards, then her problems would go away and her life would be beautiful. Then maybe, her classmates and teachers would not despise her and think she was so ugly. She so hates hersel f that she stares at herself in the mirror trying to figure out where her ugliness comes from. Beauty 4: For one year Pecola prays that her eyes will turn blue. She has many problems in her life, starting with family issues, and she thinks that if she had blue eyes, her problems might go away. And even more than that, if she had blue eyes, people would see her as beautiful, and then she would be able to see herself as beautiful too. Being a black little girl in a society that idolizes blonde-haired blue-eyed beauty, Pecola thinks she is ugly. Pecola sympathizes for the dandelions because she knows what it is like to be devalued. She finds beauty in the weeds, for she thinks that people see her as a weed. Beauty 5: A new little girl, named Maureen Peal, comes to Claudia and Frieda’s school. Maureen is revered for her looks, which people deem beautiful. She has lighter skin and eyes than most of the other children, and everyone adores her because of this. She is looked upon as beautiful because her characteristics are somewhat more â€Å"white† than other black people’s. This causes many to be jealous of her. However, Claudia and Frieda are not jealous. They see through the standards placed on beauty, and if Maureen is what is beautiful, this means that they are not beautiful (according to society). Beauty 6: When the girls are walking home from getting ice cream after school, they pass a movie theater with a picture of Betty Grable on the building. Maureen and Pecola both say that they love Betty Grable, an icon for white American beauty with her blonde hair and blue eyes. However, showing her disdain for such standards placed on beauty, Claudia says that she prefers the actress, Hedy Lamarr, who has dark hair. Beauty 7: In her younger years, Pauline Breedlove occupied herself by going to the movies. It was here that she got her first glimpse into what idealized beauty was. She saw the Hollywood blonde-haired, blue-eyed bombshells as being true representations of beauty. And anything that strayed from these looks, including her own, was seen as not pretty. American society placed their standards of beauty onto the world, and because of this, many people began to realize how far away they were from those standards. Beauty 8: Pecola goes to visit Soaphead Church with the hope that he will be able to fulfill her wish to have blue eyes. She thinks that with blue eyes, all of her problems will disappear and the world will love her because she will be beautiful. The world, seen through blue eyes, will also appear beautiful to Pecola. Beauty 9: Claudia prays that Pecola’s baby will survive. She needs the baby to live to counteract society’s standards set on beauty, which say that blonde-haired, blue-eyed little girls are all that is pretty. Claudia hopes that with this new black baby people will change and see blackness as something that can be admired and something that is beautiful. Topic Tracking: Culture Culture 1: Mr. Henry moves into Claudia and Frieda’s house. One day, the girls come home and when they walk in Mr. Henry greets them. He flatters them by telling them they look just like Greta Garbo and Ginger Rogers, two white American female actresses. These two actresses represented American society’s ideal beauty, with their blonde hair and blue eyes. They, and other actresses like them, were so idealized by the media that it forced young American girls, both white and black, to question their own beauty if it differed from the standard of blond hair and blue eyes. Culture 2: After seeing the cup with Shirley Temple on it, Claudia explains her ill feelings for her. Shirley Temple was the epitome of what all of America adored in little girls: her bouncy blonde curls and big blue eyes. This sickened Claudia, as she was so different from Shirley Temple and all of the other little girls who looked like Shirley. Culture 3: Claudia tells the story about the doll she recei ved for Christmas one year. This doll was a beautiful doll that had blonde hair, blue eyes, and pink skin. Instead of appreciating the doll like most other children would have done, Claudia dismembered and destroyed the doll. She was sick of having American ideals of beauty placed on her, which said that being white with blonde hair and blue eyes was what was deemed as beautiful. Culture 4: This excerpt from a first grade reading primer describes the perfect white family. Morrison uses these excerpts in many points of the story to illustrate the dichotomy between the ideal white family, and the family of blacks, specifically Pecola’s family. The reading book perpetuates the stigma that what is seen as â€Å"ideal† in American culture means having a neat little house, run by two loving parents, with two children, one of which has blonde hair and blue eyes, and a fun loving dog who plays with the children. This social stigma presses on children who are â€Å"different† that are reading these books, and makes them think they are abnormal and unacceptable. Culture 5: The Breedloves are described. They think they are poor and ugly, and it says that much of the reason they think this is because of the white American media. The media, as part of our culture, sets the standards for what defines beauty, and anything straying from these standards is viewed as ugly. Culture 6: Pecola is constantly faced with the standards set on her society by American culture. She cannot even enjoy a piece of candy without feeling that she is different and lacking in some way in terms of beauty. When she goes to eat her Mary Jane candy, she is mesmerized by the little girl of Mary Jane on the cover, a blonde-haired, blue-eyed girl. These cultural pressures of what defines beauty make Pecola aware of just how much she strays from that defined beauty. This eventually leads to her desire for blue eyes, which in turn leads her into madness. Culture 7: When Pecola, Maureen, Claudia and Frieda are walking home from the ice cream shop, they pass a theater with a picture of Betty Grable on it. Young girls are bombarded with American culture’s ideals of beauty, such as pictures of famous actresses. Betty Grable in particular , with her blonde hair and blue eyes, makes Pecola and Maureen want to look like her. However, despite all of their hopes and wishes, they will never be able to look like that, and they are left as the victims of a culture that standardizes and limits young children. Culture 8: During her younger years, Pauline Breedlove spent a lot of time at the movie theater. It was here where she learned American standards of true beauty. Constantly faced with actresses like Jean Harlow, the ultimate Hollywood blonde bombshell, Pauline was forced to examine her own beauty in terms of Harlow’s. She realized that she did not look anything like Harlow, and based on this, came to the conclusion that she must be ugly. However, her feelings of ugliness were purely based on cultural standards set on her through the medium of Hollywood. Culture 9: Claudia feels the need for Pecola’s baby to be alive and healthy. She wants the baby to survive because she wants to counteract the cultural emphasis placed on white girls with blonde hair and blue eyes, exemplified by the types of white baby dolls most children adore (dolls that look like Shirley Temple). If Pecola’s baby lives, maybe people can learn to love a black baby and see black as beautiful too . At least this is what Claudia is hoping for. Culture 10: Pecola beats her arms like a bird, and attempts to fly up to the sky. However, she cannot. The reason she cannot is because she has been held back by the culture in which she lives, a culture that values white beauty, and ignores black beauty. It was an inevitable end result that Pecola would never be able to achieve the standards of beauty she wanted to. She was born a black child, and unfortunately, her culture does not accept black beauty. Thus, her dreams would never be fulfilled. And even though she thinks she has blue eyes, the world around her does not recognize her as she wishes to be seen. And because of this, she is driven to madness, caused by the pressures and social standards of her culture.

Huckleberry Finn Best Intentions

Best Intentions? Can people's best intentions be good enough for you? Is right for people to try to chose your path for you? In the novel, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, by Mark Twain, the main character Huck goes through a long journey, using his experience to mature and grow as a person. Huck travels with the African American former slave Jim all over the Mississippi river in hope to get to a anti-slavery state, but they go through a lot of problems heading the wrong way and deeper into the southern states.Throughout the novel, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, there are characters who have the best intention to help Huck but it is not the best thing for him. The widow tries to â€Å"sivilize† Huck, the new judge tries to improve Pap's moral condition to better him for Huck, and the Phelps family tells Huck to â€Å"do the right thing† and return Jim to his owners. There are characters who have the best intentions for Huck but they are not the best thing for hi m. The widow wants to â€Å"sivilize† Huck, and she wants to teach him manners under a very religious view. Huck says, â€Å"The widow rung a bell for super, and you had to come to time.When you got to the table you couldn't go right to eating, but you had to wait for the widow to tuck her head and grumble a little over the victuals, though there warn't really anything the matter with them† (p. 1-2). The widow makes Huck come on time to eat supper and he has to wait after she says grace for the food they are about to eat. The widow tries to make Huck let go of bad habits, so he can fit into civilization. Huck says, â€Å"Pretty soon I wanted to smoke, and asked the widow to let me. But she wouldn't. She said it was a mean practice and wasn't clean, and I must try to not do it anymore† (p. 2).The widow tells Huck that he shouldn't smoke anymore because its a bad thing. The widow tries to â€Å"sivilize† Huck in a religious way and also by telling what is w rong and right. There are characters in the novel who have good intentions to help Huck but it isn't the best thing for him. The new judge in town tries to fix Pap's moral condition so he could be a better father to Huck. Huck says, â€Å"the new judge said he was going to make a man of him. So he took him to his own house, and dressed him up clean and nice, and had him to breakfast and dinner and supper with the family, and was just old pie to him, so to speak† (p. 6). The new judge didn't know who Pap was at first and he decided to take him in, in order to make him a better man and to be ok with himself so he can be a better father to Huck. But that back fired on the judge, Pap just ended up back in the street and drinking once again. Huck says, â€Å"they tucked the old man into a beautiful room, which was the spare room, and in the night sometime he got powerful thirsty and clumb out into the porch-roof and slid down a stanchion and a good old time; and towards daylight he crawled out again, drunk as a fiddler† (p. 7). Pap sneaked out of the house just to go get drunk and would sneak back in. The new judge wanted to change Pap's moral ways and he wanted Pap to improve in order to be a better person and a better father, but it did not work out. There are characters who try to do the best things for Huck but they never really are what he needs. Aunt Sally keeps Jim away from Huck. Aunt Sally says, â€Å"the runaway nigger†¦ they've got him back, safe and sound, and he's in that cabin again, on bread and water, and loaded down with chains, till he is claimed or sold! (p. 217). Huck tries to steal Jim back from Aunt Sally but she captures him again and keeps him. Aunt Sally wants to adopt Huck in order to â€Å"sivilize† him. Huck says, â€Å"I reckon I got to light out for the Territory ahead of the rest, because Aunt Sally she's going to adopt me and sivilze me and I can't stand it. I been there before† (p. 220). Huck doesn' t want to be civilized, he went through a lot and experienced that civilization is just not good for him, so he can't stand it.Huck is kept away from Jim when Jim is captured by Aunt Sally which makes it difficult for Huck to be on his own and Huck doesn't want to get adopted by Aunt Sally. Throughout the novel, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, there are characters who have the best intention to help Huck but it is not the best thing for him. The widow tries to â€Å"sivilize† Huck, the new judge tries to improve Pap's moral condition to better him for Huck, and Aunt Sally keeps Jim away from Huck and she wants to adopt Huck. But none of those characters intentions helped or worked for Huck. It was up to Huck to chose his own path.

Slavery the most controversial themes in the history of the United States The WritePass Journal

Slavery the most controversial themes in the history of the United States Chapter 1   Introduction: Slavery the most controversial themes in the history of the United States Chapter 1   Introduction:Chapter Two â€Å"Set Out to Play an’ Court all Dey Pleased†: Courtship among the enslaved.Chapter 3 â€Å"Jumping the broom†: Weddings and Marriage amongst the enslavedChapter 4: ConclusionRelated Chapter 1   Introduction: Slavery is one of the most controversial themes in the history of the United States; throughout much of the past century historians have debated, sometimes quite heatedly, various interpretations of this area. For the purpose of this dissertation, the personal relationships amongst the enslaved will be the subject being examined. Early research into the area on slave relationship tended to focus on the instability of slave families, The controversial Moynihan report of 1965 argued that the harsh regime of slavery shattered family ties of all that had been bound by it, and as a result the future generations of the ‘Negro Family’ lacked in strength and stability, Moynihan claimed that the majority of slave families â€Å"developed a fatherless matrifocal (mother-centred) pattern†[as men were absent husbands and fathers.    Elkins notorious study on Slavery in 1959 also negatively depicted slave relationships. Elkins compared slavery to the Nazi system of concentration camps, arguing that the enslaved were psychologically infantilized by the regime. Elkins’ argued that the totalitarian environment and â€Å"absolute power† held by the slave owners destroyed slaves capacity to resist the regime and form any sort of positive relationship with one another. Elkins asserted that the slave master was the only significant other in the life of a slave, and believed that significant bonds between slaves were unattainable. However, these views of slavery tended to focus on the perception of the slave owners and neglected the views of the enslaved. In the 1970’s new revisionist historians shifted to examining perspectives of the slave rather than that of the master, moving towards investigating ‘history from below’. The works of Gutman, Blassingame and Levine were of the first historians to look at slavery from this angle[5]; their works focused on the cultural aspects of the lives of the enslaved, a view that had been previously neglected. Similarities between their studies showed that cultural autonomy allowed slaves to distance themselves from the psychological pressures of the slavery regime and made it possible to establish and maintain positive, loving relationships. Gutman criticised the earlier orthodox views of slavery put forward by Elkins, Moynihan and Frazier, arguing that they did not appreciate the extraordinary â€Å"adaptive capacities† of the African American slaves in spite of the rigours imposed under slavery. The revisionist historians tended to focus on what Engerman referred to as â€Å"the positive accomplishments of slaves under slavery.† However more recently historians have criticised this approach, believing that the resilience and autonomy of the slaves have been overstated, shadowing the harsh truths of slavery, Kolchin’s studies claim that revisionist historians have created â€Å"an exaggerated picture of strength and cohesion of the slave community.† However one must note that by accentuating resilience and the desire for independence does not mean that historians are romanticising the whole regime of slavery and that the restrictions and exploitations imposed on slaves by their masters were not significant. Rather as West argues the fact that the enslaved strove for independence under the terrible hardships of the regime is of immense importance, since it â€Å"highlights the desire for freedom within the context of the restraints imposed by slaveholders.† For slaves, spousal love and support was of vital importance in the fight for cultural autonomy and also to provide shelter and support from their bleak lives under bondage.    This research project will further this perspective, in the attempt to show that the relationships between enslaved spouses facilitated the desire for and the development of a social space between the lives of slaves and owners and a means of resistance against oppression. This dissertation will attempt to show the strength slave relationships under and in spite of the harsh restraints of bondage. The chapters within this dissertation will look at enslaved courtship and marriage under the regime of slavery; each assessing the strength of these relationships in spite of the hardships and restrictions placed upon them. Slavery in America was present for almost two decades; it would difficult to adequately cover these issues for this entire period, for this reason this dissertation will focus on the antebellum period (1820-1860) of slavery which took place before the civil war. The significance of this period is that slavery had already been established and legislated for a long time thus providing historians with numerous sources of evidence in which to study. The limit of this period for one looking at cultural issues, is the fact that by this time there would be very few African born slaves; so this dissertation will be unable to look directly at the role played by native African slaves, as Kolchin argues that Antebellum period lacked the â€Å"large-scale infusions from Africa that might have served to foster separate black cultural forms by reinforcing a cultural continuity with the traditions of their ancestors†.[11] The majority of the slaves in the antebellum period would have been bo rn and brought up under the regime of slavery, however, this smaller scope of study should not be looked at negatively, as Levine argues that the slave culture is one of oral tradition, where culture was passed on from generation to generation by stories, songs and folk tales therefore African culture would still be relevant in the lives of Antebellum slaves.[12] As this dissertation is focusing on the antebellum period, it is limited to the Southern States of America as slavery had already been abolished in the Northern States. Although this may seem a broad geographical area, this dissertation will hope to prove that regardless of location the enslaved strove for the same autonomy to shape their own personal lives and relationships. American Slavery has been an area where sources of evidence has been heatedly criticised, the majority of early research into this topic was based primarily on ‘white’ sources which tended to rationalise the exploitation of their black counterparts. Other revisionist historians have focused on ex-slave testimonies which too have been criticised as being unreliable which will be discussed in more detail further on. However this dissertation will draw from sources of oral testimony left behind by former slaves, as Frederick Douglass explains one â€Å"cannot see things in the same light with the slave, because he does not, and cannot, look from the same point from which the slave does†[13] The Works Progress Administration Narratives (which will be referred to as WPA throughout this dissertation) are a collection of other 2,300 interviews of former slaves from the southern states conducted from 1936-38. These interviews are of vital importance when investigating slavery from the perspective of the enslaved and gives historians insight into the personal lives of slaves which is neglected in the majority of ‘white’ sources. There is however many arguments against the reliability of these narratives, the main one is that over two thirds of the respondents were more than eighty when they were interviewed, it has been suggested that their memories of bondage would affected over time, and that they were only young children during the regime of slavery. West explains that even though the respondent memory may have dimmed with age, they still remembered â€Å"a great deal about life under the peculiar institution†Ã‚   Moreover even if slave narratives weren’t perfectly recollected, the nature of the unique source still holds immense value to that of a historian. Another issue that has been noted is that many respondents would have been children at the time of slavery; this could be problematic when assessing courting and marital relationships as the former slaves could have possibly been too young to partake in these types of relationships themselves, however as previously mentioned Levine’s study shows American slave culture was one that rested on folk tales and the passing down of stories through the generations, therefore slave testimony on their parents and grandparents relationships will still be highly significant to this study. To end with Woodward brilliantly sums up that even though the WPA narratives are sometimes confusing and contradictory â€Å"they represent the voices of the normally voiceless, the inarticulate masses whose silence historians are forever lamenting† Chapter Two â€Å"Set Out to Play an’ Court all Dey Pleased†: Courtship among the enslaved. As detailed in the introduction this dissertation will examine the personal relationships in which slaves participated; in the attempt to show the strength of these relationships and also the degree in which slaves strove for the autonomy from their masters to develop and maintain these relations. This chapter will examine the role of courtship amongst the enslaved, although there has been much more recent research into the ‘romantic’ lives of slaves since the wave of revisionist historians in the 1970’s, courtship has been looked at as a ‘mere passage instead of its own social event’; historian’s have either overlooked this area completely or merged it into a broader study of marriage. This chapter will detail early historical views of enslaved courtship before discussing the variety of restrictions which were in place to hinder courtship before finally discussing the ways in which the enslaved managed to create meaningful relationships of the ir own. By the antebellum period slavery had become institutionalised across the American South, slaveholders were increasingly concerned with controlling every aspect of their ‘properties’ lives, especially that of sexual unions. This is due to the abolition of the Transatlantic Slave Trade in 1808, which stopped any more African people being imported as slaves; hence the sexual unions that slaves created became increasingly important to slaveholders to insure that they would have future generations of slaves to perpetuate the southern social order. Oral testimony from the former slave, Hannah Jones showed that there were some plantations who â€Å"just raised niggers†. By examining other slave testimonies it can be seen that many slave owners decided who their slaves would be with, in order to produce the best offspring. Katie Darling, a slave born in Texas in 1849, argued that slaves didn’t court each other under the restraints of Slavery, merely that their mast ers would â€Å"pick out a po’tly and a po’tly gal and jist put ‘em together† to reproduce as he needed more â€Å"stock†. This shows one of main reasons why historians have neglected the topic of enslaved courtship as they viewed the way in which slaves formed relationships to some extent as an insensitive and unemotional process, as the majority of masters’ chose partners for their slaves with little or no considerations of their personal feelings. Genovese acknowledged that in some cases; masters had a paternalistic attitudes towards their slaves and let them choose their own partner yet the process was still not regarded as a ‘romantic’ one as â€Å"if a man saw a girl he liked he would ask his master’s permission to ask the master of the girl for her. If his master consented and her master consented then they came togetherâ€Å" As a result of forced breeding, coerced relationships, and the ‘unemotional’ joining of partner as detailed in ‘white’ sources and also in a few slave narratives, Fraser concluded that â€Å"courtship and the normal relationships preliminary to marriage seldom existed†.   By examining more of the WPA slave narratives, however, it can be seen that this negative image of courtship was not always the case; instead one can see the importance that the enslaved placed on the creation of their personal relationships, as they â€Å"sought to define the nature and shape of their own courtship experiences.†Ã‚   By examining the ‘courtships’ of those who were bound by slavery, historians can gain insight into the cultural and social aspects of their rituals and how the enslaved strove to meet and choose their significant other, free from the influence of their master. Within this dissertation numerous WPA slave narratives will be discussed to show the extent of personal relationships between the enslaved. However when looking into the area of courtship one must note that the majority of former slaves who partook in these testimonies were young children during the years of bondage, hence they may not have participated in courtships themselves until after slavery and historians must acknowledge this issue. However this does not mean that the testimonies are of no value as many recount the stories that have been passed on to them or those they witnessed personally, giving historians insight into how courtship was shaped within the slave community and also how the slaves strove for the autonomy to create strong relationship bonds. A perspective that many traditional historians neglected as can be seen in the previous chapter as they used primarily ‘white’ sources. Many slave owners expected to decide the timing of courtship and coupling among slaves and to constrain their slaves’ choice of partner to suit their own needs; such as keeping their slaves on their plantations at all times and producing ‘quality’ offspring destined to be the master’s future slaves and/or income. To make sure this was the case slave holders placed numerous restrictions in the way of their slaves’ courtships; time was one of the largest constraints faced by the enslaved, as Smith explains â€Å"all time on the plantation, whether work or leisure, was ultimately the master’s to bestow, manipulate and define†. With slaves spending all their time working in the fields or domestically in the masters house, even when their long day at work was over, their master still controlled what they did and even when they had to go to sleep. For example, Ex-slave Matida Mckinney explained the concept of curfews on her plantation, pointi ng out that the â€Å"curfew horn was blown and no lights could be lighted after its warning not had sounded. There was very little visiting to or from the group which dwelt here, as the curfew hour was early† This shows how relatively little freedom slaves had in their day to day lives to socialise or court one another. As well as time, slave owners also restricted their slave’s mobility. The enslaved were restricted to the boundaries of their plantations. The Former slave Austin Steward points out that â€Å"Slaves are never allowed to leave the plantation which they belong, without a written pass. Should anyone venture to disobey this law, he will most likely be caught by the patrol and given thirty-nine lashes.† The enslaved had to gain their masters permission to leave their plantation, they were required to get a written pass, detailing their master’s name, the origin of their trip and their destination, and they were also required to produce this pass at the request of any white person. Not only were their ‘patrollers’ hindering slaves geographical mobility but slave owners also placed physical boundaries, such as high fences, around the perimeter of their plantations to contain and restrict slaves mobility further. Former slave Louisa Adams argues that â€Å"All de plantation wuz fenced in, dat is all de fields, wid rails; de rails wuz ten feet long† It should be noted here that the restrictions imposed on the enslaved were inconsistent throughout the Antebellum South, not just in differing states but â€Å"between slaveholders themselves; urban and rural environments and different police measures in the county†Regardless of these restrictions the enslaved managed to control their personal relationships through working around the restrictions enforced upon them by the regime of slavery. Certain social events were organised by the slave owners and occurred as part of the work regime, for example ‘corn shucking’ and ‘candy pulling’ where numerous slaves from neighbouring plantations would come together to complete a large task. Even though the slaves were working on these occasions by reviewing many of the WPA slave testimonies it can be seen that the enslaved looked forward to these events and the majority described them as ‘fun’. As well as working the slaves had the chance to engage in socialising, flirtation and courtship at these events. For instance, they played numerous courtship games such as ‘kissing for a red ear of corn’ and ‘dropping the handkerchief’ which allowed them to possibly establish a meaningful personal relationships.   The former slave Anna Wright explained how these organised events offered a good place for the enslaved to meet a potential partner but also for existing couples to continue their courtship, she explained that courting couples relished these days as they could â€Å"set out to play an’ court all dey pleased†. Therefore the enslaved managed to manipulate some of the terms of their working lives to their own ends. As well as these occasions, many slave owners also recognised different times of the year as holidays, during these times the usual time and mobility restrictions enforced on the enslaved were temporarily relaxed allowing slaves to move between different plantations and spend time socialising and courting. For instance for Christmas Holiday which could last anything from a couple of days to a couple of weeks, one former slave detailed that on his plantation from Christmas through to new year the slaves â€Å"feast, an’ we dance, an’ we sing.† Another slave explained that at Christmas, slaves â€Å"went up de riber to other plantations ter dances an’ all dem things† However it must be noted that these opportunities were completely dependent on the slave owner, who could withdraw these privileges at any time or choose not to partake in them at all. It can be seen so far that the enslaved had very little opportunity to partake in courtships, and the opportunities they had, if any, to escape being governed by their masters were seldom. Some slaves, however, resisted these restrictions which bound them and sought to have a social world separate to their plantation and thus developed ‘alternative or illicit social spaces, where they socialised, flirted and courted without the presence or consent of the slave owner’. The enslaved would go to unauthorised ‘frolics’ or their significant other’s plantations without obtaining the permission of their master in order to pursue or create a courtship. For example, ex-slave Penny Williams recounted that â€Å"Dar was some nigger men what ud go courtin’ spite de debil, an’ master ain’t gibbin dem no passes dey go widout ‘em† She also detailed how regardless of the punishment bestowed on them when they were caught, they would still continue this behaviour in pursuit of love. This point was furthered by former slave Hugh Berry, who described that he would risk severe punishment to â€Å"go back over there to see that girl†.   By doing this the enslaved defied and resisted the systems of control, such as time and geography. In conclusion, the enslaved in the antebellum south strove to meet and court a significant other of their choosing. Slave utilised the time that their owners allowed them, such as work based event and holidays to extend the limits of their lives, but they also strove to establish romantic bonds with one another in spaces that was separate from their plantation and their master’s authority. This chapter shows the value and importance slaves placed on their courtships, so much so that they would risk a severe beating in order to pursue their love interest. Also by examining slave testimonies, one can see that courtship was a vital stage in the romantic relationships of the enslaved, despite being neglected by early academics. Chapter 3 â€Å"Jumping the broom†: Weddings and Marriage amongst the enslaved The last chapter analysed the opportunities the enslaved had to meet and court a partner of their own choosing, this chapter will look at the next stage in the romantic relationship; marriage. Slave marriages have been one of the most controversial areas of research within the topic of slavery, numerous orthodox historians viewed slave marriages as weak and unstable, Stampp believed that with all the constraints imposed on the enslaved, ‘no deep or enduring affection could develop between husband and wives’.This chapter will examine the extent to which this claim is true, focusing on the difficulties and restrictions that affected slave marriages and how the enslaved managed to overcome them. The first question this chapter will examine is opportunities that the enslaved had to get married; the southern legal system never recognised slave marriages on the grounds that property could not enter into a legal contract, slave holders would not tolerate a legal contract that would interfere with their rights to dispose of their property as they pleased, therefore early scholars concluded that marital relationships could not have existed amongst slaves. However, throughout this chapter it can be seen that this was not the case; although slave marriages were not legislated they were culturally formed and respected by the slave community. As in courtship, marriages between slaves were greatly influenced by the slaveholders; some slave owners forbade their slaves to enter in marriage at all. There were many different reasons for this, one of which being the threat to the master’s authority, for example Harriet Jacob’s master rejected her requests to wed a free black man as he thought that it would displace her loyalties to him, he asserted, â€Å"Well, I’ll soon convince you whether I am your master, or that nigger fellow you honour so highly†. Another reason for master’s forbidding enslaved matrimony, which is suggested by reviewing slave testimonies, is the practice of forced breeding as discussed in the previous chapter. A former slave recalled the application of this in her plantation; â€Å"As a rule negro men were not allowed to marry at all, any attempt to mate with the negro women brought swift, sure horrible punishment and the species were propagated by selected male Negros, who were kept for this purpose, the owners of this privileged negro, charged a fee of one out of every four of his offspring for his services† A former Texas slave, also described a less explicit way of forced breeding, where the women on his plantation were paired and forced to cohabit with a mate that their master deemed as suitable, as effective reproduction was more important to the slave owner than his slave emotions. Franklin believed that this was the case for the majority of slave women, who were forced into ‘relationships’ and pregnancy by the venality of her master, Franklin asserted this made it unlikely that slaves would ever establish a loving and affectionate bond with their significant other. Conversely, even though numerous slaves were coerced into relationships, some managed to manipulate their masters so they could be with the person of their choosing. An example of this can be seen in the testimony of former slave Virgina Yarbrough, who recalled once when her master forced two slaves together even though they were in love with others, they slept in separate beds â€Å"Twas’ bout three months aftah, de marster see thar am no chillums gwine to be bo’n, so he tuks her f’om dat fellow an’ ‘lows her to stay wid de one she laks.† However, it must be noted that this happened in the minority. By examining numerous slave testimonies, however, one can determine that the majority of slave owners did allow slaves to marry the person of their choosing, as Genevese explains most owners understood that if slaves were denied their request to marry the one they loved, they would become sullen workers and would be more likely to run away. Slave owners also allowed informal ceremonies to mark marital unions amongst slaveseven if there were not legitimate. This Chapter will now examine some of the various ceremonial rituals which took place at slave weddings; one of the most common of these rituals was jumping over the broomstick where slave couples literally jumped over a broomstick together and were then married. Historians take different views on the meaning of this ceremony; Blassingame and Gutman believed this ritual originated in Africa and was initiated by the slaves themselves. On the contrary, Stevenson argues that the broomstick ritual derived from pre-Christian Europe and was passed down generations as a quaint and amusing remnant of the past, Stevenson believes this ritual was imposed on slaves by their masters, which suggested the lack of respect and honour slave-owners held for their ‘blacks attempt to create meaningful marital relationships’ By reviewing numerous slave testimonies that describe the broom stick ceremony, they tend to fit in with Stevenson’s analysis of the ceremony, this can be seen by the use of coercive language, that they were required to perform this ceremony. Again reaffirming the master’s control over slave marriages; for example Georgina Giwbs said that, ‘When yer married, yer had to jump over the broom three times. Dat wuz de licence. ’ Another instance of this can be seen by reviewing the testimony of George Womble,   he describes that slaves ‘were commanded to jump over the broom ’. All slave ceremonies were not as basic as jumping over a broomstick, they ranged from extravagant weddings as described in several slave testimonies, for example Tempie Durham recalled her â€Å"big weddin†, where her master arranged for her to have a â€Å"big weddin’ cake†, a massive feast, a bible wedding ceremony with a â€Å"nigger preacher† and a grand white wedding dress.   One may question why masters would arrange elaborate ceremonies for their slaves, Stampp suggests the reason is for the white masters to mock and belittle their black ‘property’, delighting in watching ‘a bride and groom move awkwardly through the wedding ceremony’. Genovese, however, disagree with this notion; instead believing that masters indulged slaves on their wedding days expecting that in return slaves would become more loyal and work harder. Regardless of the ulterior motives of masters, Will’s research shows that slaves preferred the e laborate trappings of the white culture, this signifies how the enslaved wished to have the same opportunities as their white counterparts to celebrate their personal relationships For the enslaved, wedding ceremonies legitimised their personal relationships to the extent possible during their time in bondage. The value and importance of these ceremonies held by slaves; whether extravagant events held in their masters house or the simple act of jumping over the broomstick, reflect the commitment slaves held in marriage and also the importance of the communal validation of their relationships. As with so many issues vital to the enslaved, white laws and planter control inevitably limited the range of marriage options open to slaves, yet working within the range and persistently attempting to widen this range of possibilities as seen also in the previous chapter, slaves forged marriage rituals that they not their masters ultimately determined and guarded. The importance of attaining marriage status alone is not sufficient evidence however to prove that slave marriages were not weak, unstable and unaffectionate as orthodox historians suggested. Another factor which led early scholars to label slave marriages with negative connotations   was the idea that slaves were sexually promiscuous, and could not remain faithful to one another, as one white slave mistress recounted â€Å"Not one in a thousand, I suppose, of these poor creatures have a conception whatever of the sanctity of marriage†. This is reiterated in some slave narratives, for example an former slave from Alabama explained that he couldn’t stay with the same woman instead he â€Å"jes tuck up wid one likely gal ater anoder† Gutman, however, argues that this was not the case and ‘fidelity was expected from slave men and women after marriage’by reviewing numerous slave narratives one can see that the majority of married slaves were loyal to each other regardless of the adverse situations they found themselves in. For example, Susan Snow a former slave, recalled that she â€Å"never hear’d tell o’ wives runnin’ round wid other men in dem days† Another example of the enslaved devotion to their spouse is recalled by Bryant Huff, who father was sold far away yet his mother refused to be unfaithful to him, she â€Å" grieved over his departure and refused, although urged, to marry again†. A serious problem which affected slave marriages was not the loyalty between spouses but the sexual exploitation faced by female slaves at the hands of white men usually their master, former Slave Henry Bibb explained that   Ã¢â‚¬Å"slaves wives cannot be true to their husbands they dare not refuse to be reduced to a state of adultery at the will of her master† This was extremely difficult for female slaves but also their significant others who were often powerless to stop the abuse; Henry Bibb further detailed his experience of when his wife Malinda was being sexually abused by their master, â€Å"I was compelled to stand and see my wife shamefully scourged and abused by her master; and the manner in which it was done, was so violently and inhumanely committed upon the person of a female, that I despair in finding decent language to describe the bloody act of cruelty† Some male slaves attempted to protect their wives from this abuse, former South Carolina slave Philip Evans recalled how his aunt was abused by a white overseer, her husband Dennis then attacked the overseer before fleeing into the woods, he was then caught and jailed before being stripped and flogged, the abuse on his wife still continued. By assessing these two testimonies it shows historians that however difficult it must have been for slave couple to endure sexual exploitation, the fact that they did is further evidence of the strength of slave marriages and the support spouses provided to one another. Another factor which would give a historian insight into determining the strength of slave marriages; is the length of time slaves were married. An example of this can be seen by reviewing the journal of a former slave holder Chaplin who noted that two of his female slaves had been married for over twenty seven years, he found that this was a strange phenomenon but by reviewing numerous slave testimonies one can draw the conclusion that it was common for slave marriages to be lifelong unions, unless broken by separation (which will discussed in more detail further on in this chapter). This is reiterated by the work of Gutman, his study showed that the majority of slaves remained married when possible, as only 9% of slaves in his study had separated due to mutual consent or by desertion Franklin believed that the permanency of a slave marriage would depend on the extent to which the couple could live and work together, based on this he deemed that slave marriages would only work if the couple remained together on the same plantation. However, as aforementioned slave marriages could not be legitimised as it would interfere with the owner’s rights to sell or give away their ‘property’, this meant that slave marriages were under constant threat of separation either through long distance or local sales, being gifted between white family members and also when estates of deceased owners were divided up Crawford estimates that nearly a quarter of all slave families were broken by sale. Slave owners understood the value slaves held in their marriage and used this knowledge as a way to control their slaves; the threat of being separated from their spouses was the most feared punishment, ‘a haunting fear which made all of the slave’s days miserable’ This overwhelming fear of being separated from their spouses shows further evidence of the importance of marital ties between the enslaved. Gutman 1970 study highlighted the strength of marital and family ties, however it has been criticised as his work only focused on large plantations where marital and family bonds would have been stronger, however it must be noted that these large plantations, where hundreds of slave presided were the exception, not the norm, Crawford’s research showed less than 50% of slaves lived on the same plantation as their significant other. The Majority of the enslaved in South were from small plantations with only a few other slaves, this meant much to their master’s dismay that they had to form cross plantation unions. These Cross plantation marriages were said to have constituted for over 33% of slave marriages, whilst these arrangements have been denigrated, work from revisionist historians have used them to exemplify the strength of marital bonds between the enslaved. Another important detail to note is that even slaves from large plantations sometimes married slaves from ot her plantations; the existence of cross plantation marriages amongst these slaves shows historians another example of the enslaved striving for autonomy from their masters. Cross Plantation Marriages were obviously harder than maintaining a relationship with a significant other on the same plantation; but despite the drawbacks, slaves went to incredible lengths to maintain their long distance relationships; for example A slave owner described how one of his slaves walked 40 miles to see his wife, only love explains his willingness to repeat this trip over and over again. Cross plantation unions also took place between free blacks and slaves, in many of these cases the free slave would attempt to purchase their significant other to no avail, however an example of the devotion held in these unions can be seen in the case of Samuel Small, a free black, who became a slave for seven years to pay for his wives freedom. Recently Russell has argued that local as well as long distance sales caused the high rates of family separations, however West believes that even though any type of separation would cause great anguish, the system of cross plantation unions coupled with the strength of relationships between spouses meant in the case of local separations the consequences may have not been so damaging. This chapter will draw attention to one final area, slave marriages once they were free; Gutman emphasised that when slaves were emancipated they went to great efforts to reunite with their families which they had been separated from. Molly Tillman recounted the anguish she felt when her master sold her husband to another state, â€Å"well ma’am, I grieved fo’ dat nigger so dat my heart wuz heavy in my breas’. I know I never would see him no more† after emancipation she still could not get over her husband until one day several years later she found him â€Å"I wuz so happy I shouted all over dat meetin’ house. We jes’ tuck up whar we   lef’ off an’ ‘fo’ long us got married† they lived happily as man and wife until he died 20 years later. The enthusiasm in which slaves registered to be legally married after the emancipation shows how much they valued their marriages. In conclusion, with all the difficulties that affected matrimonial ties between slaves on can understand why many historians deemed slave marriages as weak and unstable. However, when assessing the issues faced by slaves; legitimacy, the control owners had over their slave, forced coupling, sexual exploitation and separation, the fact that the majority of slaves managed to work through these and still managed to create deep and enduring relationships show the truth strength, resilience and value of slave marriages. By reviewing numerous slave testimonies, it is clear that through their words and behaviour slaves repeatedly strove to make their marriages last, the enslaved worked strenuously within and around the power structure which restricted their lives to maintain their marriages. Chapter 4: Conclusion In Conclusion this dissertation has shown that the enslaved of the antebellum South strove for autonomy from their masters and the harsh restraints of slavery; to do this they created strong and loving bonds with a significant other. By creating their own social space to create and maintain these unions, this illustrates that slaves were able to survive and resists the oppression they faced under bondage. Slave owners constantly intruded on the lives of their slaves, believing it was their right to control every aspect of the lives of their slaves, they attempted to decide, sometimes successfully, the opportunities slaves had to meet a potential partner, the partner their slaves should be with, the type of wedding ceremony their slaves received if any, the amount of time they could spend with their significant other and finally to separate romantic unions for sales or if they saw fit. These constant impingements forced slaves to adopt what West depicted as an â€Å"underground† approach to their ‘romantic’ lives . This has been described throughout this research project, entailing secret frolics, socialising with slaves in different plantations, celebrating marriages with appropriate ceremonies, and finally risking severe punishing at the hands of their masters or the patrollers to be able to visit the one they loved. The majority of slave testimonies that have been examined throughout this research project have shown that the majority of slaves strove to marry the person of their choosing and were also prepared to withstand great hardships to maintain their marriages. This is contradictory of the early academic views on slave relationships, especially that of Elkins as aforementioned, who believed that slavery destroyed slave’s capacity to resist the regime in any capacity, and form relationships with anyone other than their master. The research for this dissertation has shown the opposite, that in fact the majority of slaves managed to create and maintain loving and enduring marriages despite the regime of bondage, this strength is further highlighted when examining the sexual exploitation faced by female slaves and how in many cases their significant other either attempted to protect them or provided love and support to shelter them from such adversity. Another noteworthy factor when acc essing the strengths of enslaved romantic bonds is that of cross plantation union, which as previously discussed shows the lengths slaves would go to be with the one they loved, including risking cruel violent punishments to see their loved ones as much as possible. As mentioned in the introduction chapter Kolchin believes that this positive perspective on slavery dismissed the hardships of the regime, believing instead the slaves in fact flourished during their time in bondage, however this is not what this project is attempting to achieve, instead it is the fact that slaves strove for autonomy to form a connection with another, which gave them a separate identity than that of a slave, embodying roles such as companion, confidante and soulmate. Indeed for the enslaved of the antebellum South, falling in love was burdened with extreme emotional and physical difficulties, even former slave Harriet Jacobs asked herself: â€Å"Why does the slave ever love? Why allow the tendrils of the heart to twine around objects which may at any moment be wrenched away by the hand of violence†Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   West explained that despite all the problems ‘romantic’ bonds entailed, the majority of marriages amongst the enslaved sheltered and supported them in face of adversity, these loving, affectionate, and supportive relationships created a mindset of cultural independence. Finally to end with a quote from Rawick; â€Å"While from sunup to sundown the American slave worked for another and was harshly exploited, from sundown to sunup he lived for himself and created the behavioural and institutional basis which prevented him from becoming the absolute victim† Bibliography Primary Sources Berlin, I. Favreau, M. Miller, S. F. (Eds) Remembering Slavery New York: The New Press, 1998. Bibb, H. The Life and Adeventures of Henry Bibb: An American Slave US: University of Wisconsin Press, 1849. Bland, S. L. (Ed) African American Slave Narratives: An Anthology Vol III   US: Greenwood Publishing, 2001. Douglass, F. My Bondage and My Freedom New York: Miller, Orton and Mulligan, 1855. Jacobs, H. Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl New York: Dover Publications, 2001. Mellon, J. (Ed) Bullwhip Days: The Slaves Remember An Oral History New York: Weidenfeld Nicholson, 1988. Olmsted, F. L. The Cotton Kingdom: A Traveller’s Observation on Cotton and Slavery in the American Slave States New York: Alfred, A. Knopf, 1953.    Rawick, G. P. (Ed) The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography Vol. 1 From Sundown to Sunup The Making of the Black Community US: Greenwood Publishing, 1972. Rawick, G. P. (Ed) The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography Vol. 18 Unwritten History of Slavery US: Greenwood Publishing, 1972. Rosengarten, T. (Ed) Tombee: Potrait of a Cotton Planter, with the Plantation Journal of Thomas B. Chaplin, 1822-1890. London: William Morrow, 1986. Secondary Sources Blassingame, J. W. The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972. Crawford, S. Quantified Memory: A Study of WPA Slave Narrative Collection US: University of Chicago, 1980. Davies, C. T. Gates, H. L. (Eds) The Slave’s Narrative London: Oxford University Press, 1985. Dusinberre, W. Them Dark Days: Slavery in the American Rice Swamps London: Oxford University Press, 1996. Elkins, S. M. Slavery: A problem in American institution and intellectual life. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1959. Fogel, R. W. Engerman, S. L. Time on the Cross: The Economics of American Negro Slavery. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1974 Franklin, J. H. From Slavery to Freedom: A History of Negro Americans (Third Edition) New York: Alfred. A. Knopf, 1967. Fraser, R. Courtship and Love Among the Enslaved in North Carolina US: University Press of Mississippi, 2007.      Frazier, E. F. ‘The Negro Family in the United States’ The Journal of Negro History, 1930, 15, 2, 198-259. Genovese, E, D. Roll, Jordon, Roll, New York; Random House, 1974. Griffin, R. J. ‘Goin’ Back Over There to See That Girl’ Competing Social Spaces in the Lives of the Enslaved in Antebellum North Carolina’ Slavery and Abolition, 2004, 25, 1, 94-113. Gutman, H. G. The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750-1925. US: Pantheon Books, 1976. Hudson, L. E. (Ed) Working toward Freedom: Slave Society and Domestic Economy in the American South New York: University of Rochester Press, 1994. Hudson, L. E. To Have and To Hold: Slave Work and Family Life in Antebellum South Carolina. US: University of Georgia Press, 1997. Kolchin, P. ‘Reevaluating the Antebellum Slave Community: A Comparative Perspective’ The Journal of American History 1983, 70, 3, 579-601. Kolchin, P. American Slavery London: Penguin Books, 1993. Lawrence, L. W. Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought From Slavery to Freedom .London: Oxford University Press, 1977.   Merritt, C. E. Slave Family and Household Arrangements in Piedmont, Georgia US: Emory University, 1986. Moynihan, D. P. The Negro Family: The Case for National Action, Washington DC: US Government Printing Office, 1965. Schwartz, M. J. Born in Bondage: Growing up Enslaved in the Antebellum South US: Harvard University Press, 2001. Smith, M. M. Mastered by the Clock: Time, Slavery and Freedom in the American South US: University of Carolina Press, 1997. Stampp, K. M. The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Ante-Bellum South. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1956. Stevenson, B. E. Life in Black and White: Family and Community in the Slave South London: Oxford University Press, 1996. West, E. ‘The debate on the Strength of Slave Families: South Carolina and the importance of Cross Plantation Marriages’ Journal of American Studies 1999, 33, 2, 221-241. West, E. Chain of Love: Slave Couples in the antebellum South Carolina. US: University of Illinois Press, 2004. White, D. G. Ar’n’t I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South London: Norton Company Ltd, 1985. Will, T. E. ‘Weddings on Contested Grounds: Slave Marriages in the Antebellum South’ The Historian 1999, 62, 1, 99-117.

Pain Under the Left Breast Is It a Heart Attack

Pain Under the Left Breast Is It a Heart Attack SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Pain under your left breast or rib cage can be really scary, especially if you’re worried you might be having a heart attack or other medical emergency. However, most cases of chest pain under the left breast and rib cage area are caused by benign or easily treatable conditions. In this decision guide, we’ll first help you determine if your chest pain could be an emergency. Then, we’ll review different kinds of chest pain under the left breast, the potential causes, and how you should address the issue. Chest Pain Under Left Breast: Is It an Emergency? You may think: chest pain under my left breast? Time to call the ER! However, if you have pain under your left rib cage, it's unlikely, though possible, that you are experiencing a cardiac emergency. The main worry people have when experiencing pain under the left rib cage is that they are having a heart attack. While a heart attack won’t always have the same symptoms, here are some indications your pain under the left rib cage could be heart-attack related: The pain from a heart attack (or myocardial infarction) is typically not sharp or localized. Instead, it can feel like crushing, burning, squeezing, or tightness deep within the chest. It is also typically spread over a wide area of the chest (and potentially the arms, neck, and upper back). In general, you cannot relieve the pain by changing positions, breathing, stretching, etc. The pain typically increases gradually over several minutes. Here are some other potential symptoms of a heart attack: Sudden-onset vomiting or nausea Sweating or flushing Light-headedness, fatigue, or confusion Shortness of breath Tingling, numbness, weakness in arms Fever If you suspect a heart attack, call 911 or go to the emergency room. Be aware that while your primary concern may be a heart attack, there are some other medical emergencies that can also cause chest pain under the left breast. We’ll briefly go over these here. Pulmonary embolism: A pulmonary embolism occurs when a blood clot gets lodged in one of the arteries of the lungs, typically traveling from somewhere in the legs. Major clots can be life-threatening. These are the symptoms: Shortness of breath (main symptom) Sharp chest pain under the left breast (or right breast if the clot is on the right side) that extends into the arm, shoulder, neck, and/or jaw and gets worse with breathing, coughing, or exertion Fever, sweating Light-headedness, fainting, dizziness Heart palpitations Coughing up blood or bloody sputum Pain or swelling in the leg (typically the calf) Pneumothorax: A pneumothorax, or a collapsed lung, can be caused by lung disease or chest injury, but it can also occur apparently spontaneously. While a small pneumothorax may go away on its own, a severe pneumothorax can inhibit the flow of blood through the chest and be life-threatening. The main symptoms are: Sudden, sharp chest pain on one side of the body Shortness of breath If you think any of the above emergency situations might apply to you, seek medical attention immediately. Next, here are some indications that you are probably not having a heart attack: You’re feeling a stabbing, sharp pain under the left breast You can pinpoint the location where the pain is coming from Pain increases from breathing or coughing Pain comes and goes in sudden, shocking stabs Chest pain improves with exercise Pain follows eating spicy or heavy foods; you may also have a sour taste in your mouth Changing positions relieves the pain Note that some of these symptoms may be caused by chronic cardiac conditions. So if you are experiencing pain under the left rib cage, you should make an appointment to see your primary care physician to get checked out even though you most likely don’t need to go to the emergency room. Moody doctor will see you now. Types of Pain Under Left Rib Cage Even if you feel confident it’s not an emergency, you probably want to know what could be causing chest pain under your left breast. The first thing you’ll want to consider is what type of discomfort you’re feeling. Are you feeling sharp pain under the left rib cage? Dull pain under the left breast? A stabbing or burning sensation? The type of pain you are feeling on the left side of your chest can help you narrow down the potential causes, because chest pain under the left breast can be caused by a wide array of underlying complaints. Also think about the onset of your symptoms. Was the pain preceded by physical activity? Stress? A Big meal? These kinds of questions will help you figure out what your pain might be caused by. Here’s a table describing different types of chest pain under the left rib cage and some potential conditions on the right. Click on a condition to be taken to a more in-depth description of that condition. Type of Chest Pain Potential Conditions Sharp/stabbing; worse with breathing Bruised rib Costochondritis Pleurisy Pneumonia Pneumothorax Pulled chest muscle Pulmonary embolism Sharp/stabbing; not worse with breathing Angina (especially in women) Mitral valve prolapse Myocarditis Panic attack Pericarditis Pain accompanied by uncomfortable sensation of pressure, tightness, or squeezing Angina Aortic valve stenosis Asthma Coronary artery disease Heart attack Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy Severe anemia Myocarditis Pericarditis Pulmonary hypertension Pain localized to a specific area; tender to pressure Bruised rib Costochondritis Pulled chest muscle Shingles Burning chest pain Acid reflux/GERD Angina Aortic valve stenosis Coronary artery disease Heart attack Peptic ulcer Cardiac Causes of Chest Pain In this section, we’ll focus on causes of chest pain under the left breast associated with the heart. While discomfort due to heart disease often manifests as a dull pain under the left breast that feels like uncomfortable pressure, it can also be a burning or even stabbing pain depending on the condition. Conditions are listed alphabetically. Angina Angina refers to the discomfort caused when your heart muscle isn’t getting enough oxygen. It is typically caused by a narrowed or blocked coronary artery due to plaque buildup and is a warning sign of heart disease. Kind of Chest Pain: Uncomfortable feeling of squeezing or pressure; may radiate throughout the upper body to the shoulders, arms, neck/jaw, and back. Can sometimes also feel like indigestion/heartburn. Pain typically comes and goes and is often made worse by exertion. Women may also experience angina as a sharp chest pain under the left breast or breastbone. Other Symptoms: Shortness of breath Sweating Dizziness Angina symptoms may be different in women than in men. In addition to chest pain and also symptoms, a woman may also feel: Nausea and vomiting Abdominal pain Actions: The pain of angina may feel very similar to that of a heart attack, and often sends people to the emergency room (better safe than sorry!). However, it’s actually a warning sign of heart disease. Your doctor will probably recommend medication to help widen the arteries, as well as lifestyle changes. You may also need a procedure like stenting or, in serious cases, coronary artery bypass surgery. Aortic Valve Stenosis Aortic valve stenosis refers to the narrowing of the aortic valve (the valve that allows oxygen-rich blood to flow from the heart into the aorta). The narrowing of the valve causes the heart to have to work harder, potentially leading to eventual heart failure. Aortic valve stenosis can be congenital or it can caused by infection or calcium deposits that form as you age. Kind of Chest Pain: Pressure or tightness. May also feel like burning. Can radiate to the arms, shoulders, and neck. Other Symptoms: Minor stenosis typically has no symptoms. If stenosis becomes more severe, chest pain on the left side under the breast and the following additional symptoms may appear: Dizziness/fainting Irregular heartbeat Fatigue and shortness of breath Actions: Minor aortic valve stenosis will be monitored by a physician, who may recommend lifestyle changes to help protect your heart. Severe stenosis may require valve replacement, an open-heart surgery. Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) Coronary artery disease occurs when plaque builds up in the walls of the arteries that bring blood to the heart. This causes the arteries to narrow, which limits blood flow to the heart and deprives the heart of oxygen. This can lead to heart attacks and heart failure. It is the most common type of heart disease and the most common cause of death for both men and women in the United States. It is typically related to lifestyle factors like smoking, lack of physical activity, and unhealthy diet. Kind of Chest Pain: Pressure or squeezing chest pain; may also feel like burning. May radiate to the left shoulder, the arms, back, jaw, and neck. Physical exertion or stress often triggers the pain. Other Symptoms: Shortness of breath Irregular heartbeat Nausea Fatigue Dizziness Weakness Actions: CAD has serious consequences if left untreated. However, risk of complications can be lowered dramatically through lifestyle changes and medication. Surgery may also be needed to clear plaque from the arteries and restore blood flow to the heart. Mmmm, the sweet taste of lifestyle changes. Heart Attack (Myocardial Infarction) A heart attack occurs when one of the arteries in the heart becomes completely blocked, depriving part of the heart of oxygen. Kind of Chest Pain: As mentioned above, the pain from a heart attack usually feels like a crushing, burning, squeezing, or tightness in the chest. It may radiate throughout the upper body, shoulders, arms, and neck. The pain is not really relieved or changed by shifting positions, breathing, or stretching. The pain typically increases gradually over a period of several minutes. Other Symptoms: Sudden-onset vomiting or nausea Sweating or flushing Light-headedness, fatigue, or confusion Shortness of breath Tingling, numbness, weakness in arms Fever Actions: If you are experiencing a combination of the above symptoms and suspect a heart attack, call 911 or go to the emergency room. Pharmaceutical treatment can decrease the damage done by a heart attack, but drugs typically need to be administered within 1-2 hours of the attack. You may also need bypass surgery. You will likely also need to make lifestyle changes and take medications to decrease risk of future heart attacks. Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy refers to the thickening of the heart muscle, typically between the ventricles. The thickening of the muscle makes it stiffer, which makes the heart work harder to pump blood. While many people with this condition remain asymptomatic, it can lead to abnormal functioning of the valves of the heart or decrease the size of one of the ventricles, which can cause symptoms including chest pain. Kind of Chest Pain: Chest pain or pressure that appears during/after exercise or exertion, but may also occur at other times, like after meals Other Symptoms: Shortness of breath (especially during exercise/exertion) Light-headedness and fainting (especially after exercise/exertion) Heart palpitations/irregular heartbeat Fatigue Actions: See a healthcare provider, as untreated hypertrophic cardiomyopathy can have serious complications. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy can normally be managed with medication, but surgery may be recommended. Be aware that this condition is sometimes misdiagnosed as exercise-induced asthma. Mitral Valve Prolapse Mitral valve prolapse means that the mitral valve (one of the valves in the heart) bulges backward into the left atrium of the heart instead of closing evenly over it. Sometimes this causes blood to â€Å"leak† back from the left ventricle to the left atrium. People with mitral valve prolapse often have no symptoms, and will never experience health problems related to the condition. Some may have a murmur or other symptoms, including chest pain. It can be a progressive condition, getting worse over time. Kind of Chest Pain: Stabbing pains that come and go, sometimes with exertion but typically when at rest Other Symptoms: A heart murmur or irregular heartbeat dizziness/lightheadedness/fatigue Shortness of breath Panic/anxiety Numbness/tingling in hands/feet Actions: Serious mitral valve prolapse can have similar symptoms both to panic attacks and heart attacks, so patients may end up in the emergency room. If symptoms are more mild (heart murmur, etc) see a cardiologist. You may need medication or surgery in more serious cases to manage the condition. Dr. Frog will see you now. Myocarditis Myocarditis is the inflammation of the heart muscle, most often caused by viral infection. Symptoms normally develop 1-2 weeks after an infection. It can also be caused by fungal or parasitic infection or by autoimmune disorders. Kind of Chest Pain: Sharp/stabbing pain or feeling of pressure. May spread to shoulders/neck. Other Symptoms: Shortness of breath: first from exertion, then at night while at rest Heartbeat irregularities Light-headedness and fatigue Painful or swollen joints Other signs of infection, like fever, headache, diarrhea, and sore throat Actions: See a medical professional. They will conduct tests, and if you do have myocarditis, they will treat the underlying infection or cause and potentially prescribe medications to help your heart operate while you recover. You will likely need to rest and eat a low-salt diet. Most patients will make a full recovery in several months; a minority of patients will have chronic heart problems and may need a heart transplant. Pericarditis Pericarditis is the inflammation of the two thin, lubricated sacs of tissue that encase the heart. The cause is often unknown but it can be a complication of respiratory infection or of taking certain medications. Kind of Chest Pain: Typically a sharp, stabbing chest pain on the left side under the breastbone or on the left side of the chest, but can also manifest as a duller pain and pressure. Leaning forward in a seated position often eases the pain. Coughing typically makes it worse. Pain may spread to left shoulder or neck. Other symptoms: Fever Fatigue and weakness Shortness of breath Coughing Heart palpitations (irregular heartbeat) Actions: Like several of the other conditions described here, the pain of pericarditis may send individuals to the emergency room due to the fact that its symptoms can sometimes resemble those of a heart attack. However, pericarditis usually resolves on its own within a few weeks unless there are complications to be addressed. Pulmonary Hypertension Pulmonary hypertension refers to high blood pressure in the arteries that move blood from the heart to the lungs. It can have a number of causes, including genetic abnormalities, lung disease, heart disease, autoimmune conditions, drug use, and even sleep apnea. This condition causes the heart to pump harder to move blood to the lung, which can ultimately cause heart failure if untreated. Kind of Chest Pain: Pain/pressure towards the front of the chest Other Symptoms: Shortness of breath with light exertion/activity Fatigue Fainting/lightheadedness Ankle/leg swelling Dry cough Coldness in the extremities due to poor circulation (or secondary Raynaud's) Actions: Pulmonary hypertension is progressive (it gets worse over time) so seeking treatment early is important. Treatment will vary based on the cause of your pulmonary hypertension, but your doctor will likely recommend lifestyle changes and medication. In severe cases, your doctor may recommend surgery Delicious, delicious lifestyle changes. Lung and Respiratory Causes of Chest Pain In this section we’ll describe some of the main causes of chest pain on the left side due to lung or respiratory issues. Respiratory causes of chest pain often manifest as a sharp pain under the left breast. Conditions are listed alphabetically. Asthma Asthma is a chronic condition in which irritation (which can be caused by a number of triggers, depending on the type of asthma) causes the airways to narrow and fill with mucus, making breathing much more difficult. Kind of Chest Pain: You may experience chest pain before, during, or after an asthma attack. Before and during the attack, you may experience a feeling of chest tightness or pressure. Following an attack (especially the next day) you may feel soreness in your chest as a result of using accessory muscles to breathe. Other Symptoms: Coughing (especially at night) Unusual shortness of breath Wheezing Fatigue and trouble sleeping Actions: Because asthma is a chronic condition, it is important to be under the care of a physician. They will help you create a treatment plan to manage symptoms. Pleurisy Pleurisy (or pleuritis) is a condition in which the tissue encasing the lungs and lining the inner chest wall (the pleura) becomes inflamed. Pleuritis can be caused by a variety of underlying conditions but the source is often a bacterial or viral infection, like the flu. Kind of Chest Pain: Sharp pain made worse by inhaling; you may also feel pain in your shoulders or your back. Your chest may also feel tender to external pressure. Other Symptoms: Shortness of breath (primarily because taking deeper breaths is more painful). Cough Fever and chills Unexplained weight loss Actions: If you repeatedly feel sharp pain under the left breast that gets worse with breathing, see a medical professional. A variety of tests may be performed to diagnose pleurisy. Your doctor may remove some of the pleural fluid with a needle for testing. The symptoms of pleurisy may be relieved through splinting, but to treat the condition the underlying source of infection or other condition will need to be addressed. Pneumonia Pneumonia is a lung infection caused by viruses or bacteria (and sometimes fungi or other infectious agents) in which the air sacs of the lungs fill up with fluid. It can occur in one or both lungs. Because it is typically accompanied by a host of other telltale symptoms, it will probably be pretty clear to you that your chest pain is from some kind of respiratory infection. Pneumonia is often a complication of the viral flu or the common cold. Kind of Chest Pain: Sharp or stabbing, often on the side of the chest. Typically gets worse with coughing or deep breathing. Other Symptoms: Phlegmy cough; your mucus may be red-brown, green, or have blood flecks Fever and chills Shortness of breath from chest congestion. Weakness and fatigue Gastrointestinal symptoms like nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea Headache Confusion (common in older patients) Actions: If you think you have pneumonia, go to a doctor to manage treatment. Because pneumonia can have serious consequences if left unchecked, it’s best to be under the supervisory care of a physician. They can also prescribe antibiotics if they suspect the pneumonia is caused by a bacterial infection. With treatment, you’ll likely get better in 1-3 weeks. Bacteria bad guys can cause pneumonia. Pneumothorax (Collapsed Lung) Pneumothorax occurs when air gets into the space between the lung and chest wall, causing part or all of the lung to collapse. It can be caused by chest injury, certain medical procedures, or lung disease. But sometimes the cause is unknown. Men are much more likely to have a collapsed lung than women. Kind of Chest Pain: Sudden and sharp, on one side of the chest Other Symptoms: Shortness of breath A severe pneumothorax may cause the following symptoms: Chest tightness Dizziness and fainting Fatigue Rapid heart rate Blueish color to the skin (from lack of oxygen) Actions: While a small pneumothorax may go away on its own, a severe pneumothorax can inhibit the flow of blood through the chest and be life-threatening. If you suspect a collapsed lung, seek medical attention. Treatment typically involves inserting a tube to drain the air. Pulmonary Embolism A pulmonary embolism occurs when a blood clot forms in another part of the body (usually the legs), travels through the bloodstream, and gets lodged in one of the arteries of the lungs. Kind of Chest Pain: Sharp chest pain that extends into the arm, shoulder, neck, and/or jaw and gets worse with breathing, coughing, or exertion Other Symptoms: Shortness of breath (main symptom) Sharp Fever, sweating Light-headedness, fainting, dizziness Heart palpitations Coughing up blood or bloody sputum Pain or swelling in the leg (typically the calf) Actions: Major clots can be life-threatening; seek medical attention. Long flights can increase your risk of blood clots. Musculoskeletal Causes of Chest Pain This section reviews pain in the left rib cage due to damage to bones, cartilage muscles, and ligaments. If your pain is musculoskeletal in origin, you’ll likely have a specific area of pain in the left rib cage or pain under the left breastbone that’s tender to pressure. A Broken, Fractured, or Bruised Rib Trauma to the chest can cause rib injury, which naturally causes chest pain. Excessive coughing can also cause rib injuries in some cases. Most rib breaks are cracks or fractures; complete breaks are rare and very serious. Kind of Chest Pain: Site-specific pain on one or more ribs (you will be able to pinpoint the general area); will most likely feel worse with pressure, with deep breathing, and when bending and/or twisting. Other Symptoms: An injured rib may impede your breathing, which can lead to headache, dizziness, shortness of breath, and fatigue. Trauma strong enough to cause rib injuries can also sometimes damage internal organs and blood vessels, which could cause their own symptoms. Actions: If you suspect a damaged rib or ribs, see your doctor. Broken ribs are primarily treated through rest and pain management so that you can continue to breathe relatively normally to lower your risk of developing pneumonia. Costochondritis Costochondritis refers the inflammation of the cartilage that connects your ribs to your sternum (or breastbone). The cause is often unknown, but it can be caused by strenuous exercise or lifting, intense coughing, chest injury, or viral infection. Kind of Chest Pain: Typically a sharp pain in the breastbone area that gets worse when you apply pressure to the area. Pain will be increased by deep breathing or coughing and eased by rest and quiet breathing. Other Symptoms: There typically are not other symptoms of costochondritis other than the pain. Actions: This is one of the more benign causes of chest pain. Costochondritis typically goes away on its own within a few weeks. Treatment focuses on pain management. However, if you develop other symptoms like trouble breathing, a high fever, etc, you should follow up with a health care provider. Similarly, if pain does not resolve, your provider may perform a chest x-ray. Pulled or Strained Chest Muscle A strain or tear in the muscles and ligaments around the chest could be caused by a traumatic event or just from simple overuse, particularly related to sports or exercise. Kind of Chest Pain: The chest pain will likely accompany weakness and get worse with certain motions, especially of the arms. You may also feel that the area is tender to pressure. Other symptoms: Swelling Muscle spasms Actions: If pain is minor, you can treat a pulled muscle at home with ice, rest, and over-the-counter painkillers. If pain is severe or does not improve, see a doctor; you may need physical therapy or other treatment. Be careful, Santa Claus! Don't tear a muscle. Digestive System Causes of Chest Pain Issues in the digestive system can cause chest pain. Because both heart attack pain and digestive system pain can manifest as intense, burning pain under the left breast, digestive issues are often mistaken for a heart attack. However, if the pain seems impacted by your food consumption, the issue is probably digestive in nature. Acid Reflux/GERD (Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease) Acid reflux occurs when stomach acids move up into the esophagus, causing pain. If this is a chronic problem, you likely have GERD- a defect in the esophagus. Kind of Chest Pain: Burning chest pain after eating that gets worse when you lie down and improves in an upright position. Often worse at night. Some people mistake the pain of severe heartburn for a heart attack. But if the pain follows eating a heavy or spicy meal or is improved by sitting upright, it’s most likely not a heart attack. You may also feel pain below the left rib cage area. Other Symptoms: Hoarseness (from vocal cord irritation) Bitter or sour taste in mouth or throat Nausea Difficulty swallowing Dry cough Actions: You can relieve occasional acid reflux by popping a couple of antacids. But a chronic issue can damage the esophagus if it's not addressed. Your doctor might prescribe a medication to reduce the amount of acid in your stomach. You will also likely need to make some lifestyle changes (especially dietary ones) to manage your symptoms. Peptic Ulcers Peptic ulcers are sores in the stomach or the first part of the small intestine. They develop when the mucosal lining of the stomach thins and gets irritated by stomach acids. A variety of underlying issues can cause ulcers, including H. Pylori infection. Kind of Chest Pain: Burning pain that gets worse on an empty stomach and at night. You may feel pain below the left rib cage. Other Symptoms: Difficulty digesting fatty foods Nausea/vomiting; vomit may look like coffee grounds Bloating Weight loss Appetite changes Dark/black stool (from bleeding) Actions: It’s important to seek medical treatment because untreated ulcers can cause serious complications like tearing in the stomach, intestine, or blood vessels, and scarring that obstructs the digestive process. This little organ can cause major chest pains. Pain Under the Left Breast: Other Causes This section has a few other potential causes of chest pain under the left rib cage. Severe Anemia Anemia means your body is not producing enough healthy blood cells. There are a number of causes of anemia, including nutrient deficiencies, genetic abnormalities (like sickle cell anemia), and rapid blood loss. This means your heart has to work harder to pump oxygen through your body. When anemia becomes severe, your heart may not get enough oxygen-rich blood, leading to chest pain. Kind of Chest Pain: Feeling of pressure or tightness in the center of chest. Other Symptoms: Intense fatigue Shortness of breath Heartbeat irregularities Persistent feelings of coldness Paleness Headaches and dizziness Trouble concentrating; irritation Actions: While mild to moderate anemia is often not very serious and is typically easily treatable with supplements and/or lifestyle changes, long-term, severe anemia can have major consequences, like heart disease. If you suspect you are anemic, see a doctor. Panic Attack Panic attacks are intense, sudden-onset anxiety episodes lasting about 20 minutes to an hour, with unpleasant physical and emotional symptoms. They can be brought on by intense stress or the cause may be unknown. Repeated panic attacks are called panic disorder. Kind of Chest Pain: Sharp/stabbing, lasting for short bursts. Pain is often directly behind the breastbone. Other Symptoms: Feeling terrified, anxious, and out-of-control Feeling of dissociation or unreality Fast heartbeat and shortness of breath Feeling of choking Shaking/trembling Sweats and/or chills Numbness, tingling Abdominal pain or nausea Dizziness, lightheadedness Weakness Actions: Many people confuse initially confuse panic attacks for heart attacks, particularly because panic attacks are so scary. However, the chest pain associated with a panic attack is typically different from a heart attack as it is sharp and intense, lasting in short bursts. If you do have a panic attack, see a doctor. They will help you figure out coping strategies should the panic recur. If you have panic disorder, you will likely to treated with some combination of therapy and medication. Shingles Shingles, or herpes zoster, is a viral infection that causes a localized, painful rash, often on the side of the chest but sometimes elsewhere. It’s caused by the same virus that causes chickenpox. Anyone who has had chickenpox (or varicella) can get singles. Shingles is fairly common; about 1 in every 3 people in the US will get it at some point in their lifetime. Kind of Chest Pain: Before the shingles rash surfaces, many people feel intense pain at the infection site. Because the rash often appears on the side of the chest, many people experience a band of tight, intense chest pain on one side as the initial symptom. Other Symptoms: The main symptom of shingles is the rash itself, which, when it emerges is typically very painful. It typically blisters. Before or during the emergence of the rash, you may also experience chills, nausea, diarrhea, or stomach pain Swollen lymph nodes Headache and/or light sensitivity Fatigue Actions: If you suspect shingles, get to the doctor as soon as possible after the rash appears. Shingles is rarely life-threatening, but if you catch it early enough you’ll be able to take antiviral medication, which will shorten the course of the infection and reduce the chance of ongoing complications. Wrong kind of shingles. Pain Under Left Breast: Action Points If you’re feeling pain under your left breast, you may be worried that you’re experiencing a heart attack. The pain from a heart attack typically feels like a crushing or tight sensation. You probably won't be able to relieve the discomfort by changing positions, stretching, or breathing. If you suspect a heart attack, call 911 or go to the emergency room. However, most chest pains are not heart-attack related. If you feel a sharp pain under your left breast, it’s probably not a heart attack. With that said, you should still probably make an appointment with your doctor just to get checked out. Any kind of chest pain under the left rib cage can be a cause of an underlying chronic issue in need of treatment even if it’s not an immediate medical emergency like a heart attack. Early treatment of such chronic conditions dramatically decreases the risks of complications further down the line. In this guide, we went over most of the common causes of chest pain under the left breast to help you identify what the issue could be and what actions to take. Even if the cause of your chest pain is not serious, it’s important to consult with a medical professional. What's Next? Do you have shingles? Is shingles contagious? Here's how to treat that painful shingles rash. Need help understanding your blood pressure reading? Let us explain!